Oral tradition, the source of all folklore is now being celebrated as the chronicle of human history by providing evidence to the origin of people and their subsequent migrations.

The Nagas are a group of Mongoloid communities speaking Tibeto-Burman languages who inhabit a mountainous country between the Brahmaputra plains in India and the hill ranges to the west of the Chindwin Valley in Upper Myanmar. Unwritten, unrecorded oral traditions, such as folktales, folksongs, wise sayings, and proverbs are the primary sources of their legends.

The customs, beliefs, values, and opinions of the Naga society have been handed down from their ancestors to posterity by word of mouth or by practice since the earliest times. Children are taught about survival, endurance, and respect for nature and all mankind through stories and legends from infancy. Storytelling and folktales have been an integral part of Naga society. However, these oral narratives have been rendered into written form only recently. By documenting and recording folklore, social scientists are hoping to preserve pieces of the traditional and oral cultures of some of the tribes and sects being pushed to India’s margins.

The Mao Naga tribe inhabits the northern region of Manipur. Mao is a Manipur name which was also adopted by the British. Today, the more accepted view and opinion of the term “Mao” is from the Maram Naga tribe, akin to the Mao’s. The origin of the Mao Nagas is very obscure, and there is no written document of their past. The history and customs are preserved in their memories, and handed down from one generation to another only through oral narration.

As is typically the case with oral tales, the Mao story about the origin of Man leaves a lot of things unexplained. For instance, the story does not reveal how the first woman came into existence. As the earth represents the divine mother, symbolising the reproductive power of nature, it is taken for granted that the first woman is already there.
The myth says that all life forms originated from the first Mother, with the process of creation or conception initiated by an act of union with the clouds. Logically, therefore, ‘Cloud People’ should mean the whole of mankind. However, only the guardians of this legend, known as Maos, or Ememei in their own language, can be called the ‘Cloud People. Although the story is not widely shared by other Naga tribes (it is only prevalent among the neighbouring Angami and Chakesang Nagas), it forms a centre piece of an assortment of myths, which taken together tell the story of origin of the Nagas at Makhel. This tradition is reinforced by a wide range of relics and monuments at and around Makhel, and forms the foundation for the identity of the Maos as well as the Nagas.

In an alternate narrative (The original story can be read here), it is told that the white clouds came and enveloped Dziiliamosiiro and she conceived and bore three sons namely –

Ashiipfo Alapha, known as the forefather of the dark complexioned people, the Aryan and Dravidian races (Kolamei pfope),
Chiituwo, the forefather of the Non-Naga Meitei race (Mikrumei pfope), and
Khephio, the forefather of the Naga race (Nagamei pfope).

The myth goes on to say that Ashiipfo Alapha’s descendants settled down in the dark jungle (Ive katei) on the west (kola po). The descendants of Chiituwo (Meities) settled in the south valley (Mikrii po). The generations of Khephio (Naga race) spread and settled in the hills of northeast India and western Myanmar.

There is another tale about the origin and migration of the Mao Naga, which seems more recent. In this myth, the forefathers of the Nagas arrived from China. The ancestors are said to have fled when an autocratic Chinese emperor forcibly ordered his subjects to help in constructing the Great Wall of China. The ancestors quietly escaped and began walking upstream along the river Kriiborii, a tributary of Chindwin River in Myanmar, for a long time and finally reached the source of the river, hidden from the emperor and his soldiers. They decided to settle down there and named the place “Makhrefii.”(Makhre – secret, fii- place).

Mythology reflects the socio-economic, cultural and historical conditions of the community or society. Creation of myth is creation of meaning, and there can be many levels of meanings.

The above myth represents evolution rather than the creation. Tiger and Man represent the animal kingdom and Spirit represents the supernatural realm. The Myth tells us that all are related, since they are born of a common mother. Participating in the competition is quite natural as they are brothers.

In attempting to decipher the meaning of the myth, the question of truth and falsity does not arise. Tiger wanting to eat the mother after her death is perhaps the reflection of wanting to take her power and authority.

The woman represents reproductive energy. Her name signifying pure water, being fertilized by a cluster of clouds is perhaps a metaphor of the union between the sky-father and the receptive earth mother, from which all things have originated.

DEEPAM CHATTERJEE

References
1. The Myths of Naga Origin By R.B. Thohe Pou
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Naga
3. The Mao Naga Tribe of Manipur: A Demographic Anthropological Study By Lorho Mary Maheo
4. The origin of Tiger, Spirit and Humankind: A Mao Naga Myth by Dr. X.P. Mao
5. THE ANGAMI NAGAS With Some Notes on Neighbouring Tribes J. P. Hutton
6. Folktales of India, edited by Brenda E. F. Beck, Peter J. Claus, Praphulladatta Goswami, Jawaharlal Handoo
7. http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/naga
8. The Kingship System of the Mao Naga by Chachei
9. TRADITION AND TRANSITION OF MAO NAGA: A STUDY ON THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT by Komuha Jajuo and Tarun Bikash Sukai
10. Various oral narratives, songs, lectures and seminar proceedings

A long time ago, man, tiger, and god/spirit came into existence through a miraculous union between the already existing first woman and the clouds of the sky. All life on earth which includes beings in the animal kingdom, humans and spirits, originated from this union.
In the very beginning, there was a lone woman. She was the first woman and was called Dziiliamosiiro, which roughly means the “purest water” or ‘crystal clear water’. One day, at a place called Makriifii or Makhel, which is the present Mao Naga country, she was sleeping under a Banyan tree with her legs spread wide open. Suddenly, a column of white clouds descended and enveloped Dziiliamosiiro. There was conjugal relationship between the white cloud and Dziiliamosiiro as she slept. Some droplets fell from this white cloud into her genitals, and she became pregnant.
It led to her conceiving and giving birth to three children, namely Okhe (which literally means ‘tiger’ representing the whole of animal kingdom), Orah (literally meaning ‘god’ or spirit, representing the entire supernatural world) and Omei (literally meaning ‘mankind’), in that order, with Okhe as the eldest and Omei the youngest.
The mother taught her three sons. By the time the three children became adults; their mother Dziiliamosiiro was quite old and sick. So, the three brothers took turns to look after their ailing mother. When Tiger looked after her, he used to touch the mother’s body to identify the fleshy, good body parts which he would eat after her death. The mother would then become more ill with anxiety, and her worry intensified. During the turn of God/Spirit, Dziiliamosiiro would become more feverish and develop acute headaches when the other brothers went to till the fields. The mother relaxed and felt at ease, only when Man looked after her, because he tended to his mother with great care and concern. For, with his capacity for emotion, Man loved his mother the most and the woman constantly longed for Man to nurse her.
Before their mother’s death, there was a dispute between the brothers as to who should inherit her land. When the quarrels became more frequent and threatened to result in violence, the mother decided that something had to be done. So she devised a contest. She created a ball-shaped grass bale at a distance and told the three brothers to race for it. The one who touched the round grass bale first would inherit the mothers’ land. Man being the youngest and a good person, Dziiliamosiiro secretly instructed him that he should make a bow and arrow, and shoot at the grass bale, as she knew that he could not compete in strength with the other two. Man, following his mother’s instructions, succeeded in reaching the grass target first by firing the arrow and thus inherited his mother’s land.
Dziiliamosiiro then instructed the unhappy Tiger and God/Spirit to go to the thick jungles and to the far south (Kashiipii), respectively, after she died. Providentially, Dziiliamosiiro breathed her last on the day when Man was looking after her. Man quickly buried Dziiliamosiiro’s dead body under the hearth of the kitchen, as advised by his mother, before Tiger and God/Spirit came back from the field.
When they came back, Tiger demanded that Man show him where their mother was buried. Man refused, and Tiger began scraping off the mud wherever he suspected the body had been hidden, but was unable to find it. Together they all wept for their lost mother. Then, they sat down to discuss what they would do now, as their mother was no more. They came to the conclusion that they should all go to the respective places as had been directed by their mother.
But, when the time came for their departure, God and Tiger were hesitant to leave. They continued to remain at home with Man. They began quarrelling once again for the native home. Finally they decided to have another contest. The one who first saw the rising sun would dwell in the native land. The following day, they sat in a line watching for the first sign of the rising sun. Tiger and God were looking intently to the east, while Man was looking to the west. Man saw the sunlight drape the snow clad peaks of the mountains before anyone could see the sun rise. Thus, Man won the contest.
God reluctantly went away. Tiger though supposed to leave as well, remained at home with Man. But Man wanted to get rid of Tiger. One day, he asked Tiger what scared him the most. Tiger answered that fire and thunder’s sound were the most fearsome. Man tied a bamboo cup and a piece of a torn mat on Tiger’s tail, while he was fast asleep. He then brought a buffalo horn near Tiger’s ear and blew it with his might. On hearing the deafening sound Tiger woke up and ran out. The cup and torn mat tied to the tail made a huge racket as Tiger ran here and there, scared. Finally, Tiger ran away to the jungle.
Thus, the three brothers parted ways forever and Man, the youngest son, became Dziiliamosiiro’s inheritor, as she had wished. But, Man still recalls his relationship with his brothers and worships nature through rituals. (This story has other versions too which you can read here)
STORY COLLECTED BY: Deepam Chatterjee
LOCATION: Manipur
TEXT SOURCE:
1. The Myths of Naga Origin By R.B. Thohe Pou
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Naga
3. The Mao Naga Tribe of Manipur: A Demographic Anthropological Study By Lorho Mary Maheo
4. The origin of Tiger, Spirit and Humankind: A Mao Naga Myth by Dr. X.P. Mao
5. THE ANGAMI NAGAS With Some Notes on Neighbouring Tribes J. P. Hutton
6. Folktales of India, edited by Brenda E. F. Beck, Peter J. Claus, Praphulladatta Goswami, Jawaharlal Handoo
7. http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/naga
8. The Kingship System of the Mao Naga by Chachei
9. TRADITION AND TRANSITION OF MAO NAGA: A STUDY ON THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT by Komuha Jajuo and Tarun Bikash Sukai
10. Various oral narratives, songs, lectures and seminar proceedings

The Tuluva community, an ethno linguistic group of people who were originally from the Mangalore and adjoining region in Karnataka and also from a region in Kerala believe that the ‘bhutas’ (the spirit world) deserve to be worshipped with the same devotion and fervour as we do for our ‘devas’ (gods). For themthe spirit deities are divine beings, showering mercy on those who invest their faith in them. They officiate as tutelary spirits of certain families, villages or regions. They treat human beings as their foster children, protect cattle and crops and look after their health and welfare. In return they expect prayers and customary offerings.

One such spirit that is worshipped by this community is Pilichandi. It is a totem spirit. Pilichandithe people believe is the goddess who protects her people against the menace of the tiger, she is Tiger Chamundi. The Sanskritized form of her name is VyaghraChamundi.

The goddess has an interesting story. Shiva and Parvati, during one of their visits to earth,blessed a pair of birds and gave them the status of a married couple. The female bird was soon pregnant and she desired the pollen of a flower that was so rare that it bloomed in a spot that lay beyond the seven seas. The male bird, eager to please his wife,flew across the oceans and found the flower. It was late evening by the time he reached and as he put his beak inside the flower, the petals closed in, thus imprisoning the bird.

The female bird grew anxious when her partner failed to return and she prayed to Shiva, promising to offer him one of her progenies if the male bird returned safely. As desired the petals opened and the male bird flew back home. They honoured their promise made to Shiva and offered him one of their eggs. The egg however fell down and cracked; from the tiny opening emerged a tiny tiger. Parvatireared the tiger and gave it the charge of grazing the cows. However every evening when she counted her cattle in the shed, she discovered that the herd was always short by a cow. Soon a tawny coloured cow also known as kabettipetta (kabetti means tawny in colour) whose milk was reserved for Shiva also went missing. Shiva decided to spy on the cowherd, in this case the tiger and stealthily observed the entire play of events as they unfolded the next day.

First, the tiger ate the fruits of the amla tree and drank the water from the brook. Now it is a fact that when one drinks a glass of water after eating the amla fruit the water does taste sweet. The tiger assumed that if the water of the brook was so sweet, the blood of the cows that drank from the brook would be sweet too. And so he hadbeen killing a cow everyday.

Shiva ordered the tiger to go down to earth as a spirit to guard the animals and crops and to protect his devotees and punish the sinners.

During the Bhuta kola ritual performances in villages in Karnataka, there is a man dressed as Pilichandi. The impersonator makes up his face to look ferocious. Deep yellow is used as the base colour, with a red naama (tilak) on the forehead and white or black lines on both cheeks with dots to present a picture of a tiger. The man is said to be possessed by the spirit and in some places, rides a wooden dummy of a tiger that has been made specifically for the occasion and moves though the village in a procession of devotees.
(Also read other Tales of Spirits here)

STORY COLLECTED BY: Asha Kamath
LOCATION: Karnataka