The mystery of death is one of the deepest mysteries that concern the human mind. This is especially true when parents have to mourn the death of their children. When a young life is snatched away brutally in an act of war the questions of death seemed more pertinent and real. In the Mahabharata, the Pandavas experienced a similar dilemma when they lost young Abhimanyu, the son of Arjuna, who was killed brutally by enemy soldiers. Watching the battered body of Abhimanyu, the eldest of Pandava brothers Dharmaraja Yudhishthira could not contain his sorrow and pain and went into a state of deep shock. To console him Vyasa told him the following tale that explained how death is inevitable truth of this existence.
In the beginning of creation, Brahma created the universe. But the universe kept growing and never ceased to end. Frustrated and dejected Brahma got angry and wrath came out his body in the form of fire. The fire spread quickly and started consuming whatever came its way destroying Brahma’s creation. When the fire became uncontainable Rudra approached Brahma and asked him to restrain his wrath, otherwise the universe would be destroyed in no time. Brahma paid heed and began to absorb the fire back into his body. As the fire began to re-enter Brahma’s body a young woman was born from his limbs. She was dark in colour, with yellow eyes and blood red mouth. Her tongue popped out. Brahma named her “Mrutyu”(death) and told her that she would be the cause of death and destruction in this universe. This woman was not at all happy with the task given to her and she began to weep.
As the tears rolled down her cheeks Brahma gathered them in his palms. He tried to console her but still insisted that she should conduct her duty of destruction. Unhappy but bound by Brahma’s orders; Mrutyu went to Dhenuka Ashram and began to perform severe penance. Brahma appeared before her and asked her the reason for her harsh penance. Mrutyu reiterated her request: she did not want to be the cause of pain and sorrow to people on earth. Brahma finally agreed to set her free from the cruel task, but told her, ‘Tears I gathered from your eyes will turn into diseases and will weaken people and eventually kill them. But O’ Mrutyu! You should not hold yourself responsible for their death. Because Death is a necessity.’
Thus death was born.

Story collected by: Vidya Kamat
Textual source: Drona Parvan Adhyaya 53 & 54 also see
Dange, S. A., Legends in the Mahabharata, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,1969.
Location: Pan India, Tales from Mahabharata

The story of Siri (read The Epic of Siri) could be that of any woman in India. It is not the usual legend with a dramatic narrative featuring demons and magic and mystery, nor is it a description of a new order established through a heroic act. It is a story about ordinary people and their ordinary lives, a tale about husband and wife, co-wives, and sisters and their domestic quarrels and jealousies. It covers three generations and is a grim tragedy that could befall any woman. So why do Tuluva women still sing and ‘perform’ this story as a ritualized drama?

Siri holds an important position among the Tuluvas community from South Kannada district of Karnataka. They consider her to be the founder of Tuluva matrilineal tradition. Siri paddanas or the sacred recitations and the accompanying ritual dramatization take place annually in the form of a festival. Siri jatre or Siri alade as it is called, takes place on the full moon of paggu (February) in six different temples around the South Kannada region. It is believed that the spirit of Siri possesses women who are emotionally or psychologically ‘troubled’ due to various reasons. These women enter into a trance singing Siri paddanas.

Kumara is the only male character in the story and he acts as the priest/medium, talking to the women in a trance and asking them to identify themselves with the various female characters from the legend. He repeatedly asks, ‘Tell me who you are? Are you Siri? Or Sonne? Tell me why have you come? What is troubling you?’ The dialogue takes place in the form of a ritualized impromptu song-speech. He then conducts a ‘spirit investigation’ (Clause: 1991) to discover the reason for the women being possessed. At this stage, the women, having identified themselves with the characters of the legend, pour out the sufferings and grief that they have experienced in their lives while simultaneously narrating the tale of the characters they identify with.

Thus the ritual act gives them a cathartic space to temporarily forego their individual identities and step outside of their real life framework and vent their anxieties, anger, frustrations and unfulfilled desires. They are thus able to deal with the trauma inflicted upon them by family members, on account of their caste, due to class conflicts and sexual dissatisfaction.

The spirits speak through the possessed women and inform the people gathered as to why they have had to intrude into the lives of the young women. They extract a promise from the family members that they would resolve the domestic disputes that have been revealed during the trance.

At the end of the ritual women enter into a ‘grave’ made of areca nut leaves. This allows the novice – the young woman who had been possessed – to become a permanent member of the cult of Siri. She thereby joins the rank of other adept Siris and can return to the festival every year as an expert.

The question is does the myth and its accompanying ritual emancipate Tuluva women? Does it help them reclaim equity in financial and personal freedom as demanded by Siri in the legend? Noted Tulu scholar and anthropologist Prof Viveka Rai observes: ‘emancipation should be redefined by distinguishing between the point of view of the performer and that of the audience… Rather than considering ‘emancipation’ as a social activity of the outsider, I would like to stress here the transformation of mind and body of the performing women as a way of emancipation…how the performance of folk narratives and rituals contributes to bringing it about.’ (Shetty:2013)

According to French anthropologist Marine Carrin (2011), Tuluva women use the legend of Siri as a therapeutic tool to heal the emotional scars generated through societal and marital discords. American anthropologist Peter Clause (Ibid) summarizes ‘the major function of the cult’s rituals is to save defenseless women from quarrels and jealousies which arise within kin groups. While the women’s song tradition revolves around these (sic) sorts of problems and presents them as fatefully tragic truth, the ritual tradition, through the intercession of fictive male kinsmen attempts to alter and solve them’.

To conclude, the lore of Siri stands apart from other dominant patriarchal myths as it highlights the woman’s plight within her domestic space and offers a platform for negotiating and articulating her anxieties safely within a dominant patriarchal environment.

VIDYA KAMAT
References:

Carrin, Marine, “The Topography of the Female Self in Indian Therapeutic Cults”, Ethnologies, Vol 33, No 2, 2011, p. 5-28

Clause Peter, Ritual Transformation of a Myth, California University , East Bay, 1991

Rai, Viveka., “ Epics in the Oral genre system of Tulunadu”, Oral Tradition, 11/1 (1996): 163-172

Shetty, Y., “Ritualistic World of Tuluva: A Study of Tuḷuva
Women and the Siri Possession Cult”, Rupakatha Journal,
Vol. 5 No.2, 2013

“Don’t mistake her for goddess Lakshmi”, quipped Dr. Satheesh, a Kannada scholar, who had volunteered to be our local guide . We were in Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka, where I found Siri amidst dense forest enveloped in cloud of mystery. “She has her own existence and her mythology is unique to the Tulu culture. Siri was a mortal who turned into a benevolent spirit. Her life resonates all the travails of an ‘Indian’ women- abused, humiliated and cheated by men in her life.* ” Satheesh laughed awkwardly as he introduced me to Siri.

Siri – a goddess from Tuluva culture is deeply rooted in the matrilineal system. Tulu language belongs to Dravidian languages and most of its literature is in oral forms called –pardana or paddana or sandi or sandhi ( oral epics narrating the legends of the local spirits bhuta-s and daiva-s). Cult of Siri falls under the worship of bhutaradhane or the worship of ancestral spirits where the deity or the spirits negotiates with their devotees through the ‘possessed impersonator ’. Siri paddanas- are sung by women while sowing paddy fields.

It is a story of three generation of women- Siri, her daughter Sonne, and her twin grand daughters Abbaga and Daraga and the tragedies that fell upon them. According to the legend an old wealthy Bunt (name of a caste) named Bermanna Alva ruled the principality of Sathyanapura. He had no heir of his own. Annu Shetty a son of his relative helped him run the principality but Bermanna wished to have his own issue to run his business and principality. Every day he would pray to god Bermeru (Brahma) to grant him an issue. One day Bermeru appeared before him in a guise of a Brahmana and told him that the neglect of the ancestral deities was the root cause of his sorrow. Bermanna immediately restored the ancestral temple and started offering puja to his ancestral deities asking them for forgiveness. One day Bermanna returned home with prasadam consisting of areca nut flowers and sandalwood paste. In the morning he found a beautiful baby girl in the midst of areca nut pods. Bermanna was delighted and thanked gods for blessing him with a daughter. Seeing her beauty he named her Siri . Siri grew at a phenomenal rate as a fierce independent girl, who spoke her mind. As per the custom of the time, as Siri reached her puberty, Bermanna arranged her marriage to Kantha Alva- a minor feudal lord from his principality. At the time of wedding, Kantha promised Bermanna that he would keep his daughter happy with all pleasure. Very soon Siri got pregnant with her first child. But Kantha neglected her and had begun visiting Siddu- a village prostitute. When Bermanna came to fetch his daughter to perform the seventh month baby shower ( bayake ) he founds Kantha enjoying his time with Siddu. After much persuasion, Kantha returned home and gifted a saree to Siri. But Siri refused to accept it, and accused him for gifting her a saree which is worn by his mistress Siddu . Angry for insulting him before the elders, Kantha abused Siri and vowed that he would take revenge on her one day. Saddened by the events, Bermanna brought his daughter to his home in Sathyanapura. Siri delivered her first child and named him Kumara. Court astrologers predicted that the child is cursed-and Bermanna should never see the face of the baby. Kantha refuses to come and see the new born baby. One day, Bermanna hears baby cry incessantly. He tries calling out to Siri but no one replies to his call. As he holds the child to pacify him he collapses and dies.

When Kantha comes to know of Bermanna’s death, he conspires with Annu Shetty and bribes the court officials to procure the succession rights of the throne of Sathyanapura. Siri looses the court battle and is thrown out of her home by Kantha. Siri curses her husband and leaves the palace with her new born child and her loyal maid servant Daru . She lives in the forest owned by Bola kings . On the way to the forest, she performs many magical feats suggesting her divine powers. Soon Kumara dies . (some versions do not mention death of Kumar but states he vanishes making a prediction that his mother would remarry and will give birth to a baby girl. He promises Siri that he would help anyone in times of need as he has turned into a benevolent spirit) Daru too dies leaving Siri lonely and heartbroken.

One day twin kings of Bola, Kariya Kaasinghe and Boliya Deesinghe find her in the forest and bring her to their palace after hearing her tragic story. They arrange her marriage to Kodsar Alva of Kotradi a local landlord. As predicted by Kumara-Siri gives birth to a daughter and names her Sonne. Siri dies after giving birth to her daughter. Before dying she blesses the land and proclaims that anyone who worships her will get abundance in their life and will be free of diseases and illness. (In some versions there is no mention of Siri’s death in childbirth. Instead it is said that she vanishes from earth after giving birth to Sonne)

The epic continues to tell the story of her daughter Sonne. She is brought up by Ajjeru ( an elderly person) along with his daughter Ginde. When Sonne comes of age Ajjeru marries her to a respectable boy by name Guru Marla. The couple remains childless after many years of marriage. She and her husband make a vow to Bermeru that if they are blessed with children they would devote themselves to his worship. Soon Sonne gives birth to two beautiful twin daughters who are named Abbaga and Daraga. Sonne gets busy with her daughters and forgets her vow to lord Bermeru. One day Bermeru comes in disguise of an astrologer and reminds Sonne and her husband “ If you forget your vow, lord would take back his gifts”. Guru Marla gets angry at the astrologer for uttering ill words and drives him away. Later that day, Sonne and Guru Marla had to leave the house to arrange the marriage for their young daughters. They leave their daughter behind. Before leaving home, Sonne hides the game of cenne mane *(a type of dice game)- knowing that girls get into a bitter fight whenever they the game. Bermeru ceases the opportunity and taking the form of a Brahmin sneaks into the house. He opens the chest and encourages Abbaga and Daraga to play the game. Soon they get into a quarrel- and in the fit of rage one of the girls hit the board on other girl’s head killing her instantly. Realizing that she had killed her sister, the twin sister than commits suicide by jumping in nearby well. When Sonne and Guru Marla return they find both her daughters dead. As they cry heartbroken, appealing the gods; Bermeru appears before them reminding them of their forgotten vow and his own reminder to rectify the mistake.

Note:

* According to Peter Claus the similarity between legend of Siri and tale of Kannagi from Tamil Sangam period suggest that both the tales might have been constructed on the same plot.

*Cenne mane(= board) is a board game. Only royal families had the right to use such boards. Ordinary boards are usually made of hard, dense woods, such as rosewood or ebony. There are two varieties. A portable one made of two separate pieces of wood about 14 inches long, each with one row of seven pits hinged on one side so that they fold on top of the other; and, the more traditional one, consisting of a single board eighteen inches long, with fourteen playing pits and two larger cavities at either end used for storing captured pieces on the topside, with legs at either end on the bottom side.( Peter Claus: Cenne Mancala in Tuluva Culture)

Story Collected by : Vidya Kamat

Story told by: Dr.Satheesh Chitrapur, and Dr.Chithra Kallur

Location: Kavathar, Dakshina Kannada District, Karnataka

Text source: Clause, Peter J., “ A Ritual Transformation of a Myth’. South Indian Folklorist, Vol 1 no; 1, 1997

Image Details: Decommissioned icons of Ginde, Abbage, Darage, Sonne ( in front row). Siri and Kumara ( at he back row) in the temple at Kavathar

Image Source and copyright: Vidya Kamat

History and controversy are no strangers to each other. And so it has been with the case of Aryans and the Indian subcontinent. Were they invaders? Were they the original inhabitants? There are hundreds of questions with thousands of answers. Still the debate continues about whether there was an Aryan invasion or was it a slow assimilation of two or maybe more cultures. In the absence of any conclusive evidence– archaeological, historical or textual–the Aryan Invasion theory largely remains within the realms of conjecture. The belief that there may have been a set of invaders has its roots in linguistic speculation and it gained popularity during the colonial rule of India in the nineteenth century. Max Muller was the leading proponent of the Invasion theory and it was re-iterated by the British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler. But gradually, the interweaving of archaeological and linguistic data by scholars led people to question such an invasion. Also Max Muller proposed his Invasion theory in his early works but, contradicted the same in his later works and thus the theory gradually started losing steam. Over time theories of multiple small migrations that were less hostile and more assimilative started to evolve. Whilst linguists and historians engage various methods to back up their theories, each trying to impress the relative superiority of their methods, myths compel us to reach beyond our usual experiences and lead us into a world of interesting connections. As one peels away the initial layers, myths reveal hidden faces that lie underneath the seemingly childish and improbable stories that have been handed down to us.

At one level the stories reflect a changing social order and attempt to emphasise a moral code of conduct or at least indicate what should or should not be done. A careful read of some myths can lead to clear evidence of changing social and cultural order. They tell the tales of emergence of a dominant clan or class, of constant mutation of identities of indigenous and alien tribes. The stories indicate historical change, show signs of covert propaganda that must have been undertaken to establish the superiority of certain culture or clan. History is after all written by the victor. Therefore, whether or not there were physical Aryan invasions, leading to furious battles and blood shed, there was undeniably a cultural invasion with far reaching effects. The horse riding, migrating Aryan clans brought with them a new culture which in some cases took the dominant role and in others it fused with the indigenous culture, underwent mutation and took a new form. Also given that, three thousand years ago cartographic boundaries were not in existence and national territories and boundaries were fluid immense intermixtures happened through small scale migrations. Also society exhibited considerable social heterogeneity and hence the concept of alien and indigenous tribes needs re-examination.

In this constantly changing and evolving social and cultural landscape, the myth of Banasur and Jamdagni Rishi from Malana, in Himachal, the heartland of Aryan playing field tells us a tale of changing social order.

The story goes like this: Banasur was a mighty Raksasha who ruled very sternly over the area known as Malana in Kulu. To his kingdom came Maharishi Jamadagni with his wife Renuka. Jamadagni liked the sylvan surroundings and wanted to set up his hermitage in Malana. Now Banasur the wicked Raksasha had been oppressing his people a lot and did not welcome the rishi, rather he made up his mind to destroy him. Banasur was unaware that Jamadagni was a very learned man and had done years of tapasya. So he caught hold of the rishi and stuffed him in a huge cauldron full of oil, lit a fire under it and closed the lid. Several days later Banasur took the lid off and found the sage still alive and deep in meditation. Infuriated, he put the cauldron back on the fire and added more oil. Again several days later he opened the lid and found him alive and in deep meditation.  Banasur was frightened and fell at his feet, penitent. The rishi agreed to forgive him on one condition: the Rakshasha should leave the area. Banasur agreed but begged that the peculiar dialect of the area, known as ‘Kanash’, not be uprooted. Jamadagni had no objection. He did not mind that Banasur would be remembered by his people through the language they spoke for, he felt, that every time they spoke, they would be reminded of the ultimate fate of wickedness.

Banasur left his kingdom but so great had been his oppression that the people were still afraid. They worried that he may return someday and wreak vengeance. So they made an effigy of Banasur and put it into a cage, which was locked up in a cellar (called ‘Raksa Ra Mord’). The idea was to destroy the effigy if Banasur returned as that would put an end to his life. The ‘Raksa Ra Mord’ is never opened and never will be until Banasur visits. Even today once a year a goat is sacrificed outside the cellar. Jamadagni Rishi, locally known as Jamlu Rishi is the reigning village god of Malana. The Kanash dialect although confined to the village Malana, still Iingers. It has no script and today only a handful understand the dialect but cannot speak it.

The story has many colourful threads, from Banasur as a fierce Raksasha king to Jamdagni Rishi, a flag bearer of Aryan culture and beliefs, and his emergence as the more powerful of the two; to preservation of the Kanash dialect of the region. Interestingly Rakshasas were once an indigenous tribe residing in these serene mountainous regions. Therefore the assumption that Banasur was a ruler of such a tribe doesn’t seem improbable. Painting Banasur as wicked, fierce and an oppressor, not only adds more colour to the story but also sets the stage for emergence of a deliverer, a redeemer who can rescue the oppressed people, bring justice and peace to the land. Who could better fit the role than Jamadagni Rishi, one of the revered saptarshis (seven rishis) and patriarch of Vedic religion and culture? Jamadagni’s victory over Banasur is both on the spiritual and physical plane. Subliminally, the story, justifies the change in social order, the outright cultural invasion by implying inferiority of the older order and that people wanted and welcomed the change and benefitted from it. Up until this point the story points towards apparent Aryanisation of indigenous culture but, it takes an unexpected turn when Jamadagni allows the original Kanash dialect to be preserved and spoken in the region. For, common knowledge tells us that cultural invasions lead to control over the conquered tribes through language. The story however implies that while different Aryan tribes sought to emerge as a culturally dominant race of the region they were not averse to assimilating with the indigenous cultures. It was a two way process—a bit of the incoming culture, a bit of the old and voila we had something new with different aftertastes. As two cultures clashed and battled it out to establish their relative superiority, the ways and beliefs of both cultures melded and diffused into each other. Perhaps it is this quality of the invader tribes that helped keep the region together and it still keeps us rooted to our sacred past and helps us maintain that most important unbroken link to our origins.

ANURADHA DHAR BOSE

Sources                                                  

1. The Aryan Recasting Constructs, Romila Thapar
2. The Aryan Invasion theory final nail to its coffin, Stephen Knapp

• Gods of Himachal, B.R.Sharma

Oral tradition, the source of all folklore is now being celebrated as the chronicle of human history by providing evidence to the origin of people and their subsequent migrations.

The Nagas are a group of Mongoloid communities speaking Tibeto-Burman languages who inhabit a mountainous country between the Brahmaputra plains in India and the hill ranges to the west of the Chindwin Valley in Upper Myanmar. Unwritten, unrecorded oral traditions, such as folktales, folksongs, wise sayings, and proverbs are the primary sources of their legends.

The customs, beliefs, values, and opinions of the Naga society have been handed down from their ancestors to posterity by word of mouth or by practice since the earliest times. Children are taught about survival, endurance, and respect for nature and all mankind through stories and legends from infancy. Storytelling and folktales have been an integral part of Naga society. However, these oral narratives have been rendered into written form only recently. By documenting and recording folklore, social scientists are hoping to preserve pieces of the traditional and oral cultures of some of the tribes and sects being pushed to India’s margins.

The Mao Naga tribe inhabits the northern region of Manipur. Mao is a Manipur name which was also adopted by the British. Today, the more accepted view and opinion of the term “Mao” is from the Maram Naga tribe, akin to the Mao’s. The origin of the Mao Nagas is very obscure, and there is no written document of their past. The history and customs are preserved in their memories, and handed down from one generation to another only through oral narration.

As is typically the case with oral tales, the Mao story about the origin of Man leaves a lot of things unexplained. For instance, the story does not reveal how the first woman came into existence. As the earth represents the divine mother, symbolising the reproductive power of nature, it is taken for granted that the first woman is already there.
The myth says that all life forms originated from the first Mother, with the process of creation or conception initiated by an act of union with the clouds. Logically, therefore, ‘Cloud People’ should mean the whole of mankind. However, only the guardians of this legend, known as Maos, or Ememei in their own language, can be called the ‘Cloud People. Although the story is not widely shared by other Naga tribes (it is only prevalent among the neighbouring Angami and Chakesang Nagas), it forms a centre piece of an assortment of myths, which taken together tell the story of origin of the Nagas at Makhel. This tradition is reinforced by a wide range of relics and monuments at and around Makhel, and forms the foundation for the identity of the Maos as well as the Nagas.

In an alternate narrative (The original story can be read here), it is told that the white clouds came and enveloped Dziiliamosiiro and she conceived and bore three sons namely –

Ashiipfo Alapha, known as the forefather of the dark complexioned people, the Aryan and Dravidian races (Kolamei pfope),
Chiituwo, the forefather of the Non-Naga Meitei race (Mikrumei pfope), and
Khephio, the forefather of the Naga race (Nagamei pfope).

The myth goes on to say that Ashiipfo Alapha’s descendants settled down in the dark jungle (Ive katei) on the west (kola po). The descendants of Chiituwo (Meities) settled in the south valley (Mikrii po). The generations of Khephio (Naga race) spread and settled in the hills of northeast India and western Myanmar.

There is another tale about the origin and migration of the Mao Naga, which seems more recent. In this myth, the forefathers of the Nagas arrived from China. The ancestors are said to have fled when an autocratic Chinese emperor forcibly ordered his subjects to help in constructing the Great Wall of China. The ancestors quietly escaped and began walking upstream along the river Kriiborii, a tributary of Chindwin River in Myanmar, for a long time and finally reached the source of the river, hidden from the emperor and his soldiers. They decided to settle down there and named the place “Makhrefii.”(Makhre – secret, fii- place).

Mythology reflects the socio-economic, cultural and historical conditions of the community or society. Creation of myth is creation of meaning, and there can be many levels of meanings.

The above myth represents evolution rather than the creation. Tiger and Man represent the animal kingdom and Spirit represents the supernatural realm. The Myth tells us that all are related, since they are born of a common mother. Participating in the competition is quite natural as they are brothers.

In attempting to decipher the meaning of the myth, the question of truth and falsity does not arise. Tiger wanting to eat the mother after her death is perhaps the reflection of wanting to take her power and authority.

The woman represents reproductive energy. Her name signifying pure water, being fertilized by a cluster of clouds is perhaps a metaphor of the union between the sky-father and the receptive earth mother, from which all things have originated.

DEEPAM CHATTERJEE

References
1. The Myths of Naga Origin By R.B. Thohe Pou
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Naga
3. The Mao Naga Tribe of Manipur: A Demographic Anthropological Study By Lorho Mary Maheo
4. The origin of Tiger, Spirit and Humankind: A Mao Naga Myth by Dr. X.P. Mao
5. THE ANGAMI NAGAS With Some Notes on Neighbouring Tribes J. P. Hutton
6. Folktales of India, edited by Brenda E. F. Beck, Peter J. Claus, Praphulladatta Goswami, Jawaharlal Handoo
7. http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/naga
8. The Kingship System of the Mao Naga by Chachei
9. TRADITION AND TRANSITION OF MAO NAGA: A STUDY ON THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT by Komuha Jajuo and Tarun Bikash Sukai
10. Various oral narratives, songs, lectures and seminar proceedings

A long time ago, man, tiger, and god/spirit came into existence through a miraculous union between the already existing first woman and the clouds of the sky. All life on earth which includes beings in the animal kingdom, humans and spirits, originated from this union.
In the very beginning, there was a lone woman. She was the first woman and was called Dziiliamosiiro, which roughly means the “purest water” or ‘crystal clear water’. One day, at a place called Makriifii or Makhel, which is the present Mao Naga country, she was sleeping under a Banyan tree with her legs spread wide open. Suddenly, a column of white clouds descended and enveloped Dziiliamosiiro. There was conjugal relationship between the white cloud and Dziiliamosiiro as she slept. Some droplets fell from this white cloud into her genitals, and she became pregnant.
It led to her conceiving and giving birth to three children, namely Okhe (which literally means ‘tiger’ representing the whole of animal kingdom), Orah (literally meaning ‘god’ or spirit, representing the entire supernatural world) and Omei (literally meaning ‘mankind’), in that order, with Okhe as the eldest and Omei the youngest.
The mother taught her three sons. By the time the three children became adults; their mother Dziiliamosiiro was quite old and sick. So, the three brothers took turns to look after their ailing mother. When Tiger looked after her, he used to touch the mother’s body to identify the fleshy, good body parts which he would eat after her death. The mother would then become more ill with anxiety, and her worry intensified. During the turn of God/Spirit, Dziiliamosiiro would become more feverish and develop acute headaches when the other brothers went to till the fields. The mother relaxed and felt at ease, only when Man looked after her, because he tended to his mother with great care and concern. For, with his capacity for emotion, Man loved his mother the most and the woman constantly longed for Man to nurse her.
Before their mother’s death, there was a dispute between the brothers as to who should inherit her land. When the quarrels became more frequent and threatened to result in violence, the mother decided that something had to be done. So she devised a contest. She created a ball-shaped grass bale at a distance and told the three brothers to race for it. The one who touched the round grass bale first would inherit the mothers’ land. Man being the youngest and a good person, Dziiliamosiiro secretly instructed him that he should make a bow and arrow, and shoot at the grass bale, as she knew that he could not compete in strength with the other two. Man, following his mother’s instructions, succeeded in reaching the grass target first by firing the arrow and thus inherited his mother’s land.
Dziiliamosiiro then instructed the unhappy Tiger and God/Spirit to go to the thick jungles and to the far south (Kashiipii), respectively, after she died. Providentially, Dziiliamosiiro breathed her last on the day when Man was looking after her. Man quickly buried Dziiliamosiiro’s dead body under the hearth of the kitchen, as advised by his mother, before Tiger and God/Spirit came back from the field.
When they came back, Tiger demanded that Man show him where their mother was buried. Man refused, and Tiger began scraping off the mud wherever he suspected the body had been hidden, but was unable to find it. Together they all wept for their lost mother. Then, they sat down to discuss what they would do now, as their mother was no more. They came to the conclusion that they should all go to the respective places as had been directed by their mother.
But, when the time came for their departure, God and Tiger were hesitant to leave. They continued to remain at home with Man. They began quarrelling once again for the native home. Finally they decided to have another contest. The one who first saw the rising sun would dwell in the native land. The following day, they sat in a line watching for the first sign of the rising sun. Tiger and God were looking intently to the east, while Man was looking to the west. Man saw the sunlight drape the snow clad peaks of the mountains before anyone could see the sun rise. Thus, Man won the contest.
God reluctantly went away. Tiger though supposed to leave as well, remained at home with Man. But Man wanted to get rid of Tiger. One day, he asked Tiger what scared him the most. Tiger answered that fire and thunder’s sound were the most fearsome. Man tied a bamboo cup and a piece of a torn mat on Tiger’s tail, while he was fast asleep. He then brought a buffalo horn near Tiger’s ear and blew it with his might. On hearing the deafening sound Tiger woke up and ran out. The cup and torn mat tied to the tail made a huge racket as Tiger ran here and there, scared. Finally, Tiger ran away to the jungle.
Thus, the three brothers parted ways forever and Man, the youngest son, became Dziiliamosiiro’s inheritor, as she had wished. But, Man still recalls his relationship with his brothers and worships nature through rituals. (This story has other versions too which you can read here)
STORY COLLECTED BY: Deepam Chatterjee
LOCATION: Manipur
TEXT SOURCE:
1. The Myths of Naga Origin By R.B. Thohe Pou
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Naga
3. The Mao Naga Tribe of Manipur: A Demographic Anthropological Study By Lorho Mary Maheo
4. The origin of Tiger, Spirit and Humankind: A Mao Naga Myth by Dr. X.P. Mao
5. THE ANGAMI NAGAS With Some Notes on Neighbouring Tribes J. P. Hutton
6. Folktales of India, edited by Brenda E. F. Beck, Peter J. Claus, Praphulladatta Goswami, Jawaharlal Handoo
7. http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/naga
8. The Kingship System of the Mao Naga by Chachei
9. TRADITION AND TRANSITION OF MAO NAGA: A STUDY ON THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT by Komuha Jajuo and Tarun Bikash Sukai
10. Various oral narratives, songs, lectures and seminar proceedings

The Tuluva community, an ethno linguistic group of people who were originally from the Mangalore and adjoining region in Karnataka and also from a region in Kerala believe that the ‘bhutas’ (the spirit world) deserve to be worshipped with the same devotion and fervour as we do for our ‘devas’ (gods). For themthe spirit deities are divine beings, showering mercy on those who invest their faith in them. They officiate as tutelary spirits of certain families, villages or regions. They treat human beings as their foster children, protect cattle and crops and look after their health and welfare. In return they expect prayers and customary offerings.

One such spirit that is worshipped by this community is Pilichandi. It is a totem spirit. Pilichandithe people believe is the goddess who protects her people against the menace of the tiger, she is Tiger Chamundi. The Sanskritized form of her name is VyaghraChamundi.

The goddess has an interesting story. Shiva and Parvati, during one of their visits to earth,blessed a pair of birds and gave them the status of a married couple. The female bird was soon pregnant and she desired the pollen of a flower that was so rare that it bloomed in a spot that lay beyond the seven seas. The male bird, eager to please his wife,flew across the oceans and found the flower. It was late evening by the time he reached and as he put his beak inside the flower, the petals closed in, thus imprisoning the bird.

The female bird grew anxious when her partner failed to return and she prayed to Shiva, promising to offer him one of her progenies if the male bird returned safely. As desired the petals opened and the male bird flew back home. They honoured their promise made to Shiva and offered him one of their eggs. The egg however fell down and cracked; from the tiny opening emerged a tiny tiger. Parvatireared the tiger and gave it the charge of grazing the cows. However every evening when she counted her cattle in the shed, she discovered that the herd was always short by a cow. Soon a tawny coloured cow also known as kabettipetta (kabetti means tawny in colour) whose milk was reserved for Shiva also went missing. Shiva decided to spy on the cowherd, in this case the tiger and stealthily observed the entire play of events as they unfolded the next day.

First, the tiger ate the fruits of the amla tree and drank the water from the brook. Now it is a fact that when one drinks a glass of water after eating the amla fruit the water does taste sweet. The tiger assumed that if the water of the brook was so sweet, the blood of the cows that drank from the brook would be sweet too. And so he hadbeen killing a cow everyday.

Shiva ordered the tiger to go down to earth as a spirit to guard the animals and crops and to protect his devotees and punish the sinners.

During the Bhuta kola ritual performances in villages in Karnataka, there is a man dressed as Pilichandi. The impersonator makes up his face to look ferocious. Deep yellow is used as the base colour, with a red naama (tilak) on the forehead and white or black lines on both cheeks with dots to present a picture of a tiger. The man is said to be possessed by the spirit and in some places, rides a wooden dummy of a tiger that has been made specifically for the occasion and moves though the village in a procession of devotees.
(Also read other Tales of Spirits here)

STORY COLLECTED BY: Asha Kamath
LOCATION: Karnataka

Not many in India choose to worship Ravana, the evil demon king from the celebrated epic of Ramayana. However, there are a few examples of tribal communities who consider Ravana as their ancestor and worship him with reverence. Obviously the worship of Ravana is not a taboo. Here is a curious tale,  how a village ended up worshiping Ravana as their village deity. Sangola village in  Akola district of Maharashtra, worship Ravana during Dusshera and Diwali,  by offering him puja instead of burning his effigy as the rest of India.

According to the locals, around two hundred years ago, villagers of Sangola, decided to install a new idol in their village temple. They contacted a well known sthapathi or sculptor, living in the nearby village of Babhulgaon, and  requested him to make the idol of their god for their temple.  They supplied him with wood from the holy tree that grew in the temple premise, and asked him to carve out an idol of lord Rama as per his imagination.  The sculptor quoted  a  very steep fee and he also wanted all the money in advance; so every villager chipped in their share of a few rupees and raised the funds.

A few months later the sculptor asked the villagers to come and collect the idol as he had completed the finishing touches. With much anticipation and with due preparation to receive the deity,  village elders proceeded to Babhulgaon beating drums and cymbals to celebrate the arrival of the god. The sculptor handed them the idol , wrapped up in a piece of cloth and walked away without exchanging any words.  When the villagers unveiled the idol they were taken aback. Neither the sculptor had carved the idol out of wood as they had ordered,  nor could they recognise the idol (as they assumed it would be of lord Rama).  Instead the idol was made of stone , and was of a fierce warrior with ten heads and ten hands, holding a weapon in each hand. Obviously, the sculptor had played some kind of a prank on naive gullible villagers, by sculpting the idol of Ravana instead of Rama

Confused and perplexed, villagers eventually decided to accept the idol after prolonged deliberations. They put the idol on the bullock cart and accompanied by drumming of  dhols and cymbals they started  back for the village. But as soon as the procession reached the village boundary, the bulls could not move any further. As villagers gathered around the idol; they heard their elders narrate the story how they were tricked by the sculptor. They unanimously decided to receive Ravana with same devotion  that they had for lord Rama. They installed the idol at the village boundary and decided to worshiped Ravana as the village deity. They believe that after the arrival of Ravana Maharaj, as they lovingly call him,  Sangola village became a prosperous town.   The tradition of worshiping Ravana continues till today, with a special puja being offered during Dusshera and Diwali.
Story Collected by: Vidya Kamat

Text Source: Vinake, Santosh,  Lokaprabha, 23rd October, 2015, Vol: 76, pp40-41

also see; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTqaCuGoZ5Q

Location: Maharashtra

Image Detail: Idol of Ravana, from the collection of British Museum

Image Source: Wikipedia

Once upon a time, in the kingdom of heaven, Shiva wanted to build a magnificent palace for himself and Parvati. He approached Vishvakarma, the god who is worshipped in many parts of the country as the divine architect, divine carpenter and the god of all arts and crafts.
Shiva knew that there was none except Vishvakarma who could do the job. He had built Indra’s grand palace, Vijayanta; the Pushpak Ratha (chariot) for Kubera and the idol of Lord Jagannath in Puri. He had introduced the science of mechanics and architecture to the gods and had created something of renown in every yuga — in Sat Yuga he built Swarga, in Treta Yuga he built Lanka and in Dwapar Yuga he built Dwarka, the residence of Krishna. He is also believed to have given all gods their names and their ornaments. His name means omnificent – one whose powers of creation are unlimited. In the Rig Veda, Vishvakarma is also known as Tvastar where the marriage of his daughter (Saranyu) to the sun god Surya is described. (RV10.17). He is also said to have sacrificed himself to himself in the Sarvamedha Yagna which was performed for the evolution of the visible world.
At Shiva’s request, Vishvakarma set to work on a palace fit for the divine couple. He spent a lot of time planning and conceptualizing the structure. After all it had to be large; it had to be full of grand structures, planned streets and gardens and; it had to be home to the most exquisite crafts. Vishvakarma used the most lustrous metals and materials at his disposal and he built a palace in a city and a city in a palace and called it Lanka.
Shiva was ecstatic and invited his disciple Ravana to perform the inaugural ceremony. Ravana readily agreed and pleased with his devotee’s actions, Shiva asked him to name the gift he would like to have in return. Smitten by the dazzle of Lanka, Ravana asked for the city as his gift. And thus he came to inhabit the palace that was once meant for Shiva.
Vishvakarma is also said to have given the gods their weapons. The story goes thus: He had a daughter named Sanjna/Saranyu whom he gave in marriage to the Sun god Surya. Sanjna was unable to bear the harsh rays of Surya and appealed to her father for help. Vishvakarma decided to reduce the dazzle of Surya and put him on his lathe machine and cut off his brilliance by one eighth. Fragments of the sun’s rays fell on earth and out of the fiery bits, Vishvakarma created the Sudarshan Chakra for Vishnu, the Trident for Shiva, Kubera’s weapons and Kartikeya’s Lance. Vishvakarma also created Indra’s weapon Vajra (thunderbolt) out of the bones of Dadhichi. Apart from Sanjna Vishvakarma fathered Nala the monkey who possessed some of his father’s skills and built a bridge by floating stones on the sea for Rama and his troops.
In Bengal, Vishvakarma Puja is celebrated on the 17 September every year. The occasion heralds the arrival of the festive season in Bengal, commencing with Durga Puja followed by Lakshmi Puja and Kali Puja /Diwali. As the presiding deity of all crafts, Vishvakarma is worshipped by engineers, architects, ironsmiths and all artisans and craftsmen. Tools used to ply a trade, machines and implements and other things that are used to build, create or produce a good are worshipped on this day. In Kolkata you can see cars adorned with marigold garlands as owners propitiate the engines that power their vehicles. The idol of Vishvakarma is modelled with four hands in each of which he carries a book, a noose, a water-pot and tools. However the deity is said to have faces hands and feet in all directions with which he created the heaven and the earth.
Vishvakarma Puja coincides with “ranna puja” or cooking festival in Bengal which is widely celebrated in the villages and peri-urban areas. On the day preceding the Puja, the kitchen is scrupulously cleaned up, the clay oven is built anew, and new earthen pots are purchased in which multifarious dishes are cooked including different variety of sweets. While the cleaning is done throughout the day by the womenfolk, the cooking is done through the night after fasting during the day. The cooking must be done after a bath. The next morning the oven is not to be lit. The clay oven is worshipped and Puja is offered to the Snake Goddess Manasa. The food cooked during the previous night is offered in Puja. Neighbours and relatives are invited to have the food which must be served cold.
There is a rationale behind the scrupulous cleaning of the kitchen and the clay oven. The monsoon months cause extensive flooding in the villages with water entering the mud houses and snakes sometimes slithering into the houses and coiling up near the warm oven. The cleaning up of the kitchen thus forms an important activity for the safety of the house and therein lies the significance of trying to propitiate Ma Manasa. On the day of the Puja the people in West Bengal also participate in a kite flying festival. Until some years back the kite flying was held on a grand scale with folks of all age groups participating in competitions in different parts of the city. The celebrations have been much scaled down over the years with high rises having taken the place of rooftops of single / double storied buildings and life getting busier and difficult for people.

STORY COLLECTED BY: Sumitra Sen
TEXT SOURCE: Indian Mythology by Veronica Ions, Pouranik Avidhan by Sudhir Chandra Sarkar, Rig Veda
STORY TOLD BY: Inputs for this story came from Sita, Anjali and several others who have worked in my house in Kolkata over the last 39 years

There were seven suns in the creation.
Therefore the globe was very hot.
One and all were upset because of the hotness of seven suns.

One day, the seven Munda brothers conversed,
“The earth is so hot for the seven suns. If we kill the sun, the earth will be calm.”
They shot arrows towards the suns and killed six.
The seventh sun bolted from the arrow of the seventh brother and concealed itself behind the hill.

The entire world was caught in the darkness of the nightfall. The animals and birds in the forest sat in a meeting and decided to get back the light. They explored for light. But where would they get the light without the sun? They were troubled.

The bunny rabbit snooped and heard the worries of the animals and birds.
He said, “There is a sun still thriving, hiding afraid of the human being.
If you call him, he may come back and appear.

Tiger, the king of the forest called the sun.
But the sun did not turn up.

Other birds and animals tried to get the sun by calling him.
But the Sun did not listen to them.

The rooster hesitatingly asked, “May I call once?”
The birds and animals giggled at the rooster.
Tiger, the king said, “Let him try once. Maybe, the sun will come in response to his call.”

Facing towards the hill that the sun had taken shelter behind, the rooster called the sun

Kok re Kak.

The sun seemed to peek out from the other side of the hill.
Encouraged, the rooster called again, Kok re Kok

This time the sun looked up a little more.
The rooster called a third time, Kok re Kok.
Now the whole sun arose out of the hill and looked at the sky.
The sky and earth were bursting with light.
The Munda brothers understood their mistake and started adoring the Sun.

(This is a Munda oral tale collected from the Mayurbhanj district of Odisha. The illustration that goes with the story is based on the Id Tal style of traditional painting practiced by the Saora tribe. The original story is told in Munda language. Dr Mahendra Kumar Mishra, a folklorist who has authored several books on the oral traditions of the tribes of Odisha has translated it into English.)
STORY COLLECTED BY: Mahendra Kumar Mishra
LOCATION: Odisha
IMAGE CREDIT: Emam Gomanga, a teacher from the Saora tribe who paints in the Id tal style

Dr Mahendra Kumar Mishra is a noted Folklorist of India and is the author of Oral Epics of Kalahandi. He has set up Community Digital Archives in tribal areas in Odisha. He is the initiator of multicultural education in Odisha using folklore in primary schools. Dr Mishra is also the Chief Editor Lokaratna , an e-journal for Folklore Foundation, Bhubaneswar , Orissa in collaboration with the Dspace of Cambridge University, UK and National Folklore Support Center, Chennai. Dr Mishra is also the author of Folktale of Odisha published by the National Book Trust of India. He can be contacted at mkmfolk@gmail.com.
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